The Philippine Referendum of 1599, in which Filipinos voluntarily submitted themselves to the Spanish crown thereby legitimizing King Philip II's rule, is an aspect of Philippine history which has been overlooked almost to the point of invisibility. There is a small blurb on the Wikipedia page regarding this event within the context of the timeline of the Sovereignty of the Philippines.
On February 8, 1597, King Philip II, near the end of his 42-year reign, issued a Royal Cedula instructing to Francisco de Tello de Guzmán, then Governor-General of the Philippines in severe terms to fulfill the laws of tributes and to provide for restitution of ill-gotten taxes imposed on the natives. The Cedula also decreed an undertaking by which the natives (referred to as Indians), "... freely render to me submission."
The decree was published in Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip died on September 13, forty days after the publication of the decree. His death was not known in the Philippines until middle of 1599, by which time a referendum by which the natives would acknowledge Spanish rule was underway. With the completion of the Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain could be said to have established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty_of_the_Philippines
These two paragraphs tell us only the bare fact that there was a referendum where the natives freely submitted to King Philip II. So, let's look between the lines here and fill in the blanks. That same Wikipedia article has a footnote referring to an article by Fidel Villarroel titled, "Philip II and the "Philippine Referendum" of 1599". This article will be based primarily on Viallarroel's article as he has neatly gathered the pertinent and diffused sources regarding the referendum in one convenient space.
Background
The referendum of 1599 was the end result of reforms in the New World designed to eliminate abuses against the natives. The Dominican Fransisco de Vitoria championed the rights of the natives in the New World insisting that they had sovereignty in their own lands no matter how low their culture was. Three of his most important aphorisms are as follows:
1. The Indian communities are sovereign republics, and, thus, are not properly subordinate to Spain nor do they form part of Spain.
4. The Indian rulers, whether natural or elected, enjoy the same fundamental rights as any Christian or European prince.
5. The Indian peoples may freely change their political regime and subject themselves to a different sovereign in order to defend themselves from oppression and to rid themselves of a tyrant.
https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S002086040007100Xa.pdf
The result of the Dominicans, especially Bartolomé de las Casas, speaking out in opposition to abuses directed toward the natives were the New Laws of 1542. These laws were designed to protect the natives from enslavement and other abuses.
A number of Spanish missionaries argued for stricter rules, including Bartolomé de las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria. Their goal was to protect the Indians against forced labor and expropriation, and to preserve their cultures. Some discussions challenged the very legitimacy of the conquest and colonization. Eventually, the reformists influenced the King and his court to pass reforms that came to be known as the New Laws.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Laws
The Valladoid debate of 1550-1551 between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda further discussed the issues of how to deal with the natives in the New World. Villarroel writes:
In those controversies Las Casas echoed faithfully the teachings of his brother Vitoria as he defended the principles of human rights, and discussed the morality of the conquests and colonization. Here are some answers with which Las Casas rebutted Sepulveda.
1. The powers given by Christ to Peter and his successors are purely spiritual and moral, not political and temporal, and therefore papal authorization in this case refers only to the evangelization of those peoples.
2. The lands belong to the original inhabitants who are therefore the rightful owners.
3. No nation can claim moral superiority over another.
4. (Argument of Sepulveda: Realizing the superiority of our culture, those peoples have spontaneously asked us to take them under our sovereignty.) Answer of Las Casas: Have they actually done so? Can you supply evidence for this claim?
The above quoted principles had serious implications in the practical order, that is, in reference to the exalted territorial conquests, to the expansion of the dominions of the King of Spain and to the annexation of peoples to his crown and empire. The big question was: All that, by what right? But the stark reality was that the Indians were human beings with right to be free, to own their lands, and to constitute political societies. Neither Pope nor emperor were lords of the universe. And so, by what right was Spain in the land of the Indians?
Villarroel, pg 11
This question "by what right was Spain in the land of the Indians" would trouble the Dominicans and other missionaries who came to the islands to evangelize the natives.
The Philippines 1565-1586
The Philippines is unique in that they were claimed for Spain without the abuses of the conquistadors who rampaged the Americas. There, much blood was shed. Here, the case was entirely different. It's not that blood was not shed but that war was seen as a last resort. Legazpi was sent to the Philippines with specific instructions from King Philip II on how to treat the natives.
By the time the Spaniards took over the Philippines in 1565, Philip II had been king of Spain for ten years, Fortunately for the Islands, when the Adelantado Miguel López de Legazapi landed in Cebu, the Crown of Spain, had for more than twenty years, committed itself, clearly and unquestionably, to a kind colonization in like with the New Laws, enacted in 1542.
Besides, Legazpi brought with him specific instructions and norms on how to conduct explorations and conquests, which neither Hernán Cortéz nor Francisco Pizarro had had in Mexico and Peru. Gone were the days of arriving in new lands and taking possession of them in the name of the kings of Castile and León. Legazpi was bound to follow to the letter, the norms of requerimiento or the formalities established by law to deal at the encounter with newly discovered peoples.
Arriving in Cebu, Legazpi spent three days to fulfill the law of the requerimiento, a notice to the Cebuano ruler that the Spaniard came only to establish friendly relations and to make commercial deals. It was only after the deadline of the requerimiento ended with a refusal by the local ruler to negotiate when Legazpi was forced to declare war on him, And so, the Spaniards landed by force to fight the hostility and resistance of the natives. Soon afterwards conversations were resumed which ended in a treaty of peace.
Villarroel, pgs 12-13
Legazpi was required to send a notice of peace and submission to the native rulers. If they submitted everything was fine but if they refused then he was to declare war on them.
Here are the conditions of peace, or rather submission concerted: 1) The natives placed themselves under the Royal Crown of Castile, promising to be faithful vassals and obey his commands. And they promised it for themselves and for their descendants...
Villarroel, pg 47, note 6, citing Jesus Gayo Aragon
As formal and humane as this process was compared to the brutal conquests of Mexico and South America it was still a conquest by the Spanish. Natives were abused and mistreated. The mistreatment of the natives by the Spaniards caused the Augustinians who accompanied them to "doubt the legitimacy of the conquest and, therefore, the legal presence of the Spaniards in the Islands."
In 1579 a Diocese was established in Manila. The first Bishop was a Dominican, Fr. Domingo de Salazar. He convened a Synod in 1581 which first met in 1582 and lasted until 1586. At this Synod the issue of the legitimacy of Spain's presence was discussed. Two solutions were given to this thorny problem. The legitimacy of the Spanish presence in the islands was the preaching of the Gospel and the low culture of the natives.
Some legitimate titles must be found for Spain to posses the Philippines. In fact, the Synod came out with only two possible legitimate reasons. One, the right to preach the Gospel anywhere, and therefore here, the other the low degree of culture of the natives which could be invoked as a reason for ruling over them and governing them. But the first title did not condone the use of arms, and the second was among those mentioned by Vitoria as "dubious and never certain titles."
Villarroel, pg. 18
What is meant by "the low degree of culture of the natives" is not made clear. Seeing as there was a system of writing, Babayin, which means many were literate and seeing, as evidenced from the Boxer Codex, that many Filipinos were dressed nobly, and seeing as Filipinos were able sailors and shipbuilders it would seem there was some degree of high culture when the Spaniards arrived. But the issue of low culture was declared by Francisco Vittoria to be dubious.
The problem of the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest was ultimately left uncertain and undecided even by the two proposed solutions. However those solutions were necessary to calm the sensibilities of the missionaries who were told afterwards to forget about political problems and focus on their spiritual ministry.
The Synod, therefore, advised that the missionaries would do better by stopping to talk about these problems. It would be better for them to devote themselves to her spiritual ministry than to engage themselves in matters that did not pertain to their mission and could only serve to stir criticism, division, and scandal. and would be little advantageous to the natives and to the new Christians.
Villarroel, pg. 19
The Arrival of the Dominicans 1587-1597
This advice to remain silent may have served to quite the consciences of the Augustinians, Jesuits, and Franciscans who attended the Synod and were working amongst the natives but the arrival of the Dominicans in 1587 stirred up the question of the legitimacy of Spain's rule once more. These men were trained in the school of Fransisco de Vitoria, the champion of human rights, and were determined to keep his principles to the letter. That meant securing beyond any reasonable doubt the legitimacy of Spain's rule.
In this regard, let it be more that even the Dominicans themselves were desirous that Philip II were to be acknowledged as temporal ruler of the Islands. "All of us," Father Benavides wrote, "seek that the pagan Filipinos give obedience not only to God and to the Pope but also to the King of Castile." But first, he and his fellow Dominicans wanted the legitimate dominion to be established beyond doubt and as soon as possible. It was fundamental to attract the pagan Filipinos to freely choose their submission to his Majesty even before they became Christians.
Villarroel, pgs. 20-21
But it was not simply a matter of having the natives, who were already conquered, freely acquiesce and submit to the King of Spain. In order for the King and his council to accept this free submission they would have to acknowledge that everything about the conquest was illegal. This bold proposal, having the King admit he was in the wrong, seemed impossible but Benavides claimed he knew a way "it could be done without losing face."
"If we," he wrote, "have the ability to do it, let us impress upon the pagan Filipinos so that their leaders and vassals will freely and very voluntarily decide to wish, have, choose, and swear allegiance to his Majesty and to his successors as their legitimate king and lords, and to pay them tribute."
Villarroel, pg. 21
It was therefore necessary to make the long and arduous journey to Spain for an audience with King Philip II himself. To that end Bishop Salzar and Fr. Benavides left Manila for Spain in 1591. Sailing East to Mexico they arrived in Spain in 1593. Salazar, an old man of 82, died soon afterwards in December 1594. This left Fr. Miguel Benavides in charge of the mission to King Philip who nominated him as Bishop of Manila.
Benavides was granted an audience with King Philip II in which he handed him two treatises one of which dealt with the requirements for levying tributes and for preaching the Gospel. There is no record of the details of this audience but the result is that Philip convoked a special Junta to deal with the issues raised by Benavides one of which was the legitimacy of Spanish rule and the necessity for the natives to freely submit.
To that end Philip issued the following Royal Cedula on February 8, 1597 to the Governor of the Philippines Don Francisco Tello. It ends with this instruction:
Likewise you will confer with the said superiors and religious, and bring it about that they shall undertake to remedy by love all which shall be found to have been done through force and fear; for, according to what the bishop tells me of these Indians, they are well disposed (not only in spiritual but in temporal matters), freely to render me submission. Done at Madrid, on the eighth day of the month of February in the year one thousand five hundred and ninety-seven.
The Plebiscite 1598-1599
Bishop Benavides did not arrive in Manila until May 1598. The Royal Cedula was handed to the Governor who read it in a meeting with all the ecclesiastical authorities in the Islands. The next day the decree of the Governor was read aloud by the public crier on August 5th. Part of the Acts of that meeting is as follows:
For the future they understand that our Lord's service demands that, by peaceful means of love, all the Indians should render voluntary and free submission to his Majesty the king of Castilla, our lord; and they offered that by themselves and the religious, and the other ministers under their control, all efforts should be made that this might be accomplished in a short time.
Shortly thereafter on September 13th, 1598 King Philip II died. The Islands would not receive this news until the middle of 1599 and by then the plebiscite was in full swing. Communication within the Islands was also slow going and it took months before Governor Tello's orders were received in the provinces. Likewise there was no infrastructure of any kind to take a vote as we would know it with ballots.
There was only one thing to do, and it was done: to ask verbally the representatives of the native population whether they wanted the King of Spain or not. This and nothing more. The important thing is that we know what happened. The results can be known through various reports sent from the Philippines to the Court of Madrid.
Villarroel, pg. 28
The Results of the Referendum
Results of the referendum are not known from every province but what is known is as follows.
Mangaldan, Pangisan
The referendum in Mangaladan, Pangisan was held on March 21, 1599 and was presided over by Bishop Benavides. From the Acts of this session we read as follows:
(All the men assembled) of their free will, without any coercion, rather much to their satisfaction, were giving and actually gave voluntarily and freely, in the name of all the pueblos and barnagays, for the present as well as for the future, obedience to the Catholic King of Castile and León, whom they were taking and actually took for their King and lord, and they placed themselves under his royal protection, and being their vassals they would be defended and protected, living in peace and with security their lives, honor and properties. And above all they asked his Majesty that he provide them with Bishops and religious [missionaries] and all that pertains to the good of the soul. About all this, they said that they were not moved by said religious or other persons, but by what they saw by experience; and they gave many thanks to God who had deigned to send such king and lord to them.
They added more, saying that if upon entrance in these islands, the Spaniards had explained to the people by word of mouth and any actions in a manner understandable to them the good that derived from being vassals of the king, they [the natives] would have given obedience as voluntarily and as freely as they do now.
Villarroel, pgs, 34-35
Cagayan
Diego Siriban was an early convert to Catholicism and a leader of the people. He was "an open support of the new way of life taught by the missionaries" and when the Royal Cédula of 1597 arrived in Cagayan he "led his people into accepting enthusiastically the sovereignty of the King of Spain."
"Hence, within a few years, when the voluntary offer of their allegiance was asked from them on the part of his Majesty King Felipe II, to satisfy a scruple which he had felt with regard to the conquest of that province, one of the leading chiefs of the province, Don Diego Siriban, responded for himself and for his subjects that he gave his allegiance to the king our Lord with a very good will, because of the great blessing which he had given them by sending religious to them."
He went on to say: "If we had known earlier the good that was coming to us with them, we would have gone to their countries to seek for it, even if we had been sure that half of us were certain to perish in the quest." The same thing was said by the whole town.
Villaroel pgs. 36-37
Another town in the same area also gave its allegiance freely to the King of Spain.
The bishop of Nueva Segovia, Don Fray Pedro de Soria, collected those Indians together, by order of his Majesty, and told them of the advantages of the Spanish monarchy, and how beneficial it would be for them to have Don Felipe, the king of the Spaniards, as their king, who would protect them peacefully and with justice. The chiefs answered not a word to this. Thereupon, the bishop spoke again and asked them whether they had understood the words he had spoken to them, and if they would answer. Thereupon a clownish Indian arose and said: “We answer that we wish the king of España to be our king and sovereign, for he has sent Castilians to us, who are freeing us from the tyranny and domination of our chiefs, as well as fathers who aid us against the same Castilians and protect us from them.”
The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXIII, 1629-30, pg. 253
La Laguna
The plebiscite took place in Lumban on June 13th, 1599. 143 Barangay captains, chieftains, and other leaders of the people showed up but they were hesitant to give an answer right away instead asking for a year long moratorium to decide upon something so monumental as submitting to the King of Spain.
“Therefore, in answer to what was asked them, as it was of so great importance they sought for a delay, as the time is so short, and they had not conferred and communicated with all the chiefs, nor informed those of their villages of the resolution; and so they separated, saying that there would be enough time from now until the departure of the ships in the coming year, one thousand six hundred, and that information about this negotiation could be sent then to his Majesty. “
Governor Fransisco Tello reported on the results in a letter dated July 1599.
This is what has been done since then, in virtue of their decision. Instructions and directions have been sent to the alcaldes-mayor and to the religious in all the provinces, that by the gracious methods which your Majesty directs, submission shall be rendered to your Majesty. In the province of Ylocos, in the diocese of the bishop of Nueva Segovia, this was very well done; and submission was rendered to your Majesty. Likewise the whole district of Manila, a mission of the Augustinian fathers, has rendered submission. La Laguna, in charge of the Franciscan fathers, has not so easily yielded; for the natives there have asked a year's time in which to answer; and I have left La Laguna in this state, until I should give an account of it to your Majesty, as you direct me. The same thing will be done in the other provinces which ask delays. Thus far I am not informed of what has been done.
They are in no wise oppressed by the collection of the tribute; and if the effect of this royal decree must continue and be in operation as provided therein, there will be many difficulties, such as have already commenced with the seeking of delay. Your Majesty will hold nothing securely, and for the same reason will have no justification for possessing this land. I am sending your Majesty a copy of the instruction and directions which are ordered for the execution of these measures, and one of the answers by the natives of La Laguna; so that, seeing these difficulties, your Majesty may be pleased to order a review of this affair and a determination of what is most expedient for the service of your Majesty. In the meantime I shall put matters into the best state possible.
In this letter Governor Tello not only reports the results of the referendum thus far but also warns King Philip that many difficulties would arise were it to continue. Specifically he notes the hesitation of the inhabitants of La Laguna who asked for a year's delay before giving an answer. Unfortunately their answer, if there was one, is not recorded. By that time it was a futile exercise because news of the death of King Philip had reached the Islands.
It is quite possible that matters remained where they were left in June of 1599, Firstly, becasue by June or July of 1599, the news about Philip II's death must have arrived in Manila and now his son Philip III sat on the throne of Spain. Secondly, Governor Francisco Tello de Guzman had shown little enthusiasm for the plebiscite as he explicitly manifested it to the King in his report of July 12, 1599. He went as far as to advise the king to "revise the whole affair" because the referendum would cause more difficulties than solve problems. The king's death liberated the Governor from displeasure of proceeding with the plebiscite further.
Villaroel, pg. 44
It appears that with the death of King Philip II the referendum came to an end and the results were deemed inconsequential. What little details we do have of the referendum are scattered, almost buried, in the The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 series as well as other dusty and neglected volumes. The Wikipedia article says:
With the completion of the Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain could be said to have established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines.
Other websites have parroted this line but it's simply not true. First of all the Referendum was never completed. Secondly, while the results we do have are positive they are not comprehensive. One cannot say that Spain "
established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines" because a few provinces gave verbal assent to their rule.
Conclusion
What can one say about this referendum? When in the history of the world has an already conquered people been asked whether or not they will give allegiance to their conquerors? The past tells us that there is only submission or death when it comes to a conquering army. What would have happened had the natives decided they did not wish to become vassals to Spain? Would the Spaniards have packed up and left? Did not the natives already freely submit themselves and their posterity to the Spanish Crown when Legazpi arrived?
Here are the conditions of peace, or rather submission concerted: 1) The natives placed themselves under the Royal Crown of Castile, promising to be faithful vassals and obey his commands. And they promised it for themselves and for their descendants...
There are two ways to look at the referendum of 1599. One is through the eyes of the natives. At least four regions gave their allegiance freely. Two of them said they would have done it sooner had they been asked because of the blessings brought by the religion of the Catholic Church. One thanks the Spaniards for freeing them from the tyranny of their own countrymen. But what about the abuses committed by the Spaniards which vexed the missionaries? Why do the natives not mention any such abuses?
The second way to look at the referendum is through the eyes of the missionaries. This referendum was the culmination of years of reform in the way Spain dealt with the natives in her colonies begun by the Dominican Fransisco de Vitoria. But what did it matter to have the permission of the natives when the Spaniards were already entrenched and had no intention of pulling out? Was this not all an empty show of which the real purpose was ultimately to soothe the consciences of a few men? Surely the referendum says more about the missionaries and their scruples than it does about the natives' willingness to submit. And what about King Philip II? Why would he agree to such a thing except to ease his conscience as well?
Philip II's decision to order the holding of a referendum among his subjects may surprise many historians, especially the more critical of his policies and character. A monarch who ruled over almost one half of the known world often painted as tyrannical and despotic, insensitive and heartless, was in fact a deeply religious person, principled and magnanimous, pious and conscientious, ready to lend an ear to theologians, moralists, and jurists, to his private confessor and to the entreaties of missionaries, just as he heard the advises of his ministers and his Council of the Indies. His interests were not only Europe, England, France or Italy, but also in the right of his most simple and uncultured subjects in the New World and the Far East. It is a pity that the Philippine Referendum has been bypassed by all historians of Spain and the biographers of the King.
He was above all a man with a social conscience and a Christian conscience. He had the scrupulosity of the righteous man, of the prudent statesman and of the man of God.
Villaroel pg. 46
Just as
the referendum of 1935 where Filipinos voted to approve a constitution and independence, the referendum of 1599 has been largely forgotten. Perhaps the endeavor did not amount to much but the motivations behind the missionaries who advocated the plebiscite, of King Philip II who allowed it, and the natives who willingly submitted to the King ought to change our perspective of the nature of the conquest of these islands. It's not as black and white, (evil and greedy Europeans came here to rape these islands of all their resources), as many people make it out to be.
