To Celebrate June 12th as the Philippines' Independence Day is to celebrate a lie.
On June 12th, 1898 Emilio Aguinaldo declared the Philippines' independence from Spain. Two years previously in 1896 he had led an unsuccessful revolution against Spain which ended with him exiled to Hong Kong in 1897. Shortly thereafter the Spanish-American war began. According to Aguinaldo the American Consul-General in Singapore, Spencer Pratt, approached him about returning to the Philippines to fight the Spanish alongside the Americans. Aguinaldo was assured that Philippine independence would be recognised by the Americans under the protection of the US Navy as led by Admiral Dewey.
Despite having these assurances the exiled Filipino community voiced concerns that the Americans would not keep their word.
"I candidly informed the Admiral that when I was about to leave Hongkong the Filipinos residing in that colony had held a meeting in which they had fully discussed the possibility that after the Spaniards were defeated, the American Government might not recognize our independence and another war would follow. In that event, the Americans would surely defeat us for they would find us worn out and short of ammunition owing to our struggle against the Spaniards. I then asked the Admiral if my countrymen's misgivings had any basis. I hastened to beg him to excuse me for bringing up the matter, but I had to do soin the interest of frankness as befits allies.
"The Admiral said he was glad to have this evidence of our earnestness and frankness. In reply, he thought that Filipinos and Americans should act toward one another as friends and allies, and therefore it was proper that all doubts be expressed frankly so that explanations may be made, distrust removed and difiiculties avoided. He then stated that, as he had already indicated, the United States would unquestionably recognise the Independence of the people of the Philippines, guaranteed as it was by the word of honor of Americans which, he said, was more positive, more irrevocable, than a written agreement which might not be regarded as binding when there is an intention or desire to repudiate it, as was the case with the pact we had made with the Spaniards in Biaknabato."
A Second Look at America, pages 38 - 39
Supplied with weapons Aguinaldo leaped back into the revolutionary fray immediately upon his return to the Philippines. After several victories against the Spanish he declared independence on June 12th. This declaration of independence essentially placed the Philippines under the protection of the Americans.
And having as witness to the rectitude of our intentions the Supreme Judge of the Universe, and under the protection of the Powerful and Humanitarian Nation, the United States of America, we do hereby proclaim and declare solemnly in the name and by authority of the people of these Philippine Islands,
http://www.mabuhayradio.com/history/act-of-the-declaration-of-independence
Not only is June 12th not the true independence day of the Philippines but the fake independence being celebrated is one that is not even truly independent as the Philippines was to be placed under the protection of the United States of America!
From June to August 1898 Aguinaldo went about organising the government, opening schools, appointing cabinet officials, and even sending ambassadors to the USA, France, Japan, England, and Australia to obtain international recognition of his government.
In September of 1898 the revolutionary Congress convened and a government was formally set up at Malolos. The delegates were very excited about their new found independence and urged that a constitution be written as that would be the only way their independence would be recognised.
A constitution was written and finally ratified on January 21, 1899.
Neither the Spanish nor the Americans nor any other country recognised the declaration of June 12th or the Revolutionary Government as being legitimate. The Spanish-American war continued until an interim peace beginning in August 1898. Instead of giving any legitimacy to the Aguinaldo regime the United States set up an occupying military government on August 14th, 1898.
The government established among you by the United States army is a government of military occupation, and for the present it is ordered that the municipal laws, such as affect private rights of persons and property, regulate local institutions, and provide for the punishment of crime, shall be considered as continuing in force, so far as compatible with the purposes of military government, and that they be administered through the ordinary tribunals substantially as before occupation, but by officials appointed by the government of occupation.
http://filipino.biz.ph/history/proc-occupation.html
By the time Aguinaldo's ambassador to the United States finally met with President McKinley on October 1, 1898 the fate of the country had already been decided. There was no place for the Aguinaldo regime in the future of the Philippines.
The Americans would cede the Philippines from Spain as "cession of the entire archipelago would be a "good business proposition" for the American nation."
The Treaty of Paris was signed on December 10th, 1898. The negotiations over the Philippines were so contentious that the talks almost broke down until the United States agreed to buy the entire country for 20 million dollars. Thereafter President McKinley issued his Benevolent Assimilation proclamation.
The destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila by the United States naval squadron commanded by Rear-Admiral Dewey, followed by the reduction of the city and the surrender of the Spanish forces, practically effected the conquest of the Philippine Islands and the suspension of the Spanish sovereignity therein. With the signature of the treaty of peace between the United States and Spain by their respective plenipotentiaries at Paris on the 10th instant, and as a result of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. In the fulfillment of the rights of sovereignity thus acquired and the responsible obligations of government thus assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the entire group of the Philippine Islands becomes immediately necessary, and the military government heretofore maintained by the united states in the city, harbor, and bay of Manila is to be extended with all possible despatch to the whole of the ceded territory.
It will be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights. All persons who, either by active aid or by honest submission, co-operate with the Government of the United States to give effect to these beneficent purposes will receive the reward of its support and protection. All others will be brought within the lawful rule we have assumed, with firmness if need be, but without severity, so far as possible.
When Aguinaldo read this proclamation he was furious and considered it a betrayal of everything he had been told by the Americans, to wit that they did not seek the conquest of the Philippines. Shortly after this proclamation and the ratification of the Malolos constitution the Philippine-American war began. In 1901 Aguinaldo was captured by American troops, took an oath of loyalty to the United States, and the First Philippine Republic was dead. For forty-eight years the USA had complete control of the Philippines.
It is quite interesting to note that despite the Masonic roots of the Philippine struggle for independence, the leaders were all Masons and the first constitutional program, written by Apollinaro Mabini, was dismissed as being too steeped in the principles of Freemasonry, they did not succeed while the revolutions in America and France, which were also led by Masons and steeped in the fraternal doctrines of Freemasonry, did succeed.
I have skipped over a whole lot of details and important information because there is simply too much to tell. The whole situation with McKinley and his decision to take the Philippines instead of recognising the Aguinaldo regime is very complex and one cannot but conclude there was deceit and a lot of self-interest involved on the side of the Americans. But that is not what is important here. What is important is that the attempt at independence failed. There was no independence on June 12th, 1898.
There was only what would today be called LARPing. Live Action Role-Playing. They went through all the motions of establishing a legitimate government but no nation recognised it as being legitimate. Just like you can dress up as your favourite fantasy character but no one is going to acknowledge you are really Gandalf or Harry Potter or Goku. You're just some dweeby nerd.
It was not until July 4th, 1946, after a transition period which started in 1934, that the Philippines became independent. Manuel Quezon had traveled to the United States to secure a law to establish Philippine independence. This was the
Tydings-McDuffie Act which provided a framework for Philippine independence within ten years. Part of this transition included the drafting of a constitution which was approved by a plebiscite of 96%. The Tydings-McDuffie Act states:
If a majority of the votes cast shall be for the constitution, such vote shall be deemed an expression of the will of the people of the Philippine Islands in favor of Philippine independence, and the Governor-General shall, within thirty days after receipt of the certification from the Philippine Legislature, issue a proclamation for the election of officers of the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine Islands provided for in the constitution.
http://www.philippine-history.org/tydings-mcduffie-law.htm
This means that independence was not granted benevolently by a conquering nation but rather independence was an expression of the will of the people. The United States respected that will. World War 2 interrupted the transition briefly and on July 4th, 1946 the Philippines became an independent nation.
For 15 years the Philippines celebrated July 4th as Independence Day. It was not until 1962 that a Presidential Proclamation switched the date to June 12th. Two years later in 1964 this switch was made permanent by law.
AN ACT CHANGING THE DATE OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE DAY FROM JULY FOUR TO JUNE TWELVE, AND DECLARING JULY FOUR AS PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC DAY, FURTHER AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE SECTION TWENTY-NINE OF THE REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE
SECTION 1. The twelfth day of June is hereby proclaimed as the Philippine Independence Day, and all citizens of the Philippines are enjoined to observe such day with rites befitting Independence Day.
http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1964/08/04/republic-act-no-4166/
Why was this done? Gabriel Fabella was the first to advocate for the change.
Fabella toyed with the idea of changing the date of Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12 as early as 1959. Eventually, he tried to seek the help of his constituents from UP in order for his vision to come true. Also in the same year, the Philippine Historical Association submitted a resolution sponsored by Fabella which was the basis of Congressman Ramon Mitra’s bill seeking to adopt June 12 as the independence day of the Philippines.
Apart from the resolution, Fabella made sure he did his part by carrying his advocacy in his public speeches and over the radio. He explained to the public the significance of celebrating June 12 as the country’s independence day. This was the content of his speeches in Mindoro, Cavite and Legaspi City. He also wrote an article “June 12 or July 4?” that was published in the Sunday Times Magazine on June 1960 and this stirred positive responses and support from the people.
His arguments and reasons embodied in the PHA resolution in advocating June 12 to be the independence day were the following:
- First, United States celebrates independence day every July 4, the day Americans declared their independence not 3 September 1783 when Great Britain recognized their liberty;
- Second, if the Philippines celebrates its independence day every July 4, our celebration would be dwarfed by the US celebration;
- Third, June 12 was the most logical date since Filipinos were not actually particular about fixing of dates, what we actually cared for is independence itself;
- Fourth, if the Philippines celebrates common independence day with USA, other nations might believe that the Philippines is still a part of United States.
http://nhcp.gov.ph/remembering-the-father-of-june-12-philippine-independence-day/
Fabella is the real Father of the change from July 4th to June 12th but it was President Macapagal who officially made the switch.
Having served in the foreign service, I noted that the celebration of a common independence day with the United States on July 4 caused considerable inconvenience. The American celebration dwarfed that of the Philippines. As if to compound the irony, July 4 seemed tantamount to the celebration of Philippine subjection to and dependence on the United States which served to perpetuate unpleasant memories.
I felt, too, that July 4 was not inspiring enough for the Filipino youth since it recalled mostly the peaceful independence missions to the United States. The celebration of independence day on June 12, on the other hand, would be a greater inspiration to the youth who would consequently recall the heroes of the revolution against Spain and their acts of sublime heroism and martyrdom. These acts compare favorably with those of the heroes of other nations.
In checking the reaction to my plan to shift independence day to June 12, I found that there was virtual unanimity on the desirability of transferring the celebration from July 4. Likewise, there was a preponderant view for choosing June 12 as the proper day.
When I became President, I knew that this was the opportunity to take action on what had been in my mind since entering public life. The specific question was when to make the change.
The opportunity came when the US House of Representatives rejected the $73 million additional war payment bill on May 9, 1962. There was indignation among the Filipinos. There was a loss of American good will in the Philippines, although this was restored later by the reconsideration of the action of the US lower chamber. At this time, a state visit in the United States had been scheduled for Mrs. Macapagal and me on the initiative and invitation of President John F. Kennedy. Unable to resist the pressure of public opinion, I was constrained to obtain the agreement of Kennedy to defer the state visit for another time.
I decided to effect the change of independence day at that time not as an act of resentment but as a judicious choice of timing for the taking of an action which had previously been decided upon.
Macapagal could not be more deceptive and dishonest about his motives. This issue of the US denying a $73 million payment was HUGE. There was a lot of uproar and the Congress was incensed to an exorbitant degree. The denial of this payment was seen as a serious blow to Philippine-American relations. If this payment had been approved then it is highly likely Independence Day would not have been changed. It was only three days after the U.S. Congress denied the payment that Macapagal signed Proclamation 28.
NOW, THEREFORE, I, DIOSDADO MACAPAGAL, President of the Philippines by virtue of the authority vested in me by Section 30 of the Revised Administrative Code, do hereby declare Tuesday, June 12, 1962, as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines in commemoration of our people’s declaration of their inherent and inalienable right to freedom and independence.
I urge all national, provincial, city and municipal officials throughout the country to make arrangements in their respective localities for the appropriate celebration of the occasion as Philippine Independence Day.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the Republic of the Philippines to be affixed.
Done in the City of Manila, this 12th day of May, in the year of Our Lord, nineteen hundred sixty-two, and of the Independence of the Philippines, the sixteenth.
http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1962/05/12/proclamation-no-28-s-1962/
Most certainly this was a political move done as a way to appease the people, his rivals, and the Congress so as to not be seen as a footstool to the Americans.
From Macapagal's radio address dated May 14, 1962:
First I will speak of the war damage matter. After the disapproval of the bill, the Philippine House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution urging the postponement of my state visit to the United States. The Philippine Senate Committee on Foreign Relations conveyed the same sentiment to the Vice-President and concurrently Secretary of Foreign Affairs for reference to me and other proper authorities. For my part, after consultation with my cabinet and other administration leaders, I expressed concern over the repercussions of the disapproval of the measure on Philippine-American relations and summoned our Ambassador to Washington to come home for consultations. Ambassador Emilio Abello arrived this morning upon which I held a long conference with the Secretary of Foreign Affairs and him.
When I accepted the invitation of President John F. Kennedy to make a state visit to the United States, I looked forward to an occasion for a public manifestation of the historic good will that had prevailed between the Filipino and American peoples for many years. Now the disapproval of the $73 million war damage bill by the U.S. Congress shortly before my scheduled arrival in the United States has caused nationwide disillusionment and indignation among our people. This unfortunate action has been interpreted by our countrymen as indicative of a negation of legal and moral commitments to our country by the United States government and lack of interest on the part of the American people in the successful solution of the economic problems of a steadfast ally in the struggle against international communism.
The resentment of our people was further aggravated by the fact that Congressman H. R. Gross who reportedly expressed the attitude which caused the disapproval of the measure declared categorically that the war damage amount and the economic assistance extended by the American government to the Philippines in the past were handouts. I vehemently deny the correctness of this aspersion.
The outstanding fact in the present situation is that the feeling of resentment among our people and the attitude of the Congress of the United States negate the atmosphere of good will upon which my state visit to the United States was predicated. I feel that our people will never understand how, under the circumstances at this time, I could go to the United States and dwell on the subject of good will. At this present moment, the word will sound empty.
http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1962/05/14/radio-speech-of-president-macapagal-on-president-macapagal-speaks-to-the-masses/
From Macapagal's Independence Day address on June 12th, 1962:
In celebrating the declaration of our independence today, we find an instructive precedent in American history. The thirteen American colonies declared themselves independent on July 4, 1776. Their independence was, however, recognized by England, their former mother country, more than seven years later, on September 3, 1783. Nevertheless, the American people have regarded July 4 as their day of freedom. In the same way, June 12, 1898 is the true birthday of an independent Filipino nation, for it was on this day that they called the whole world to witness their powerful resolve to consider themselves absolved of allegiance to the Spanish crown.
Let me say, however, that the celebration of our independence on this day does not detract from the respect and gratitude which the Filipino people have for the people of the United States. Indeed, the Declaration of Philippine Independence of June 12, 1898 itself contains two references to the United States. The first reference to America declared that the Philippine Independence being proclaimed was “under the protection of the mighty and humane North American Nation.” The second reference in connection with the description of the Filipino flag said that “the colors blue, red and white, commemorate those of the flag of the United States of North America, in manifestation of our profound gratitude to that great nation for the distinguished protection she is extending to us and will continue to extend to us.” We say therefore that despite the transfer of the celebration of our independence, the Filipino people will preserve their esteem and gratitude for America, and in the present state of the world, I believe I bespeak the sentiment of our people in declaring that we will be ready to fight on the side of America, as in the past, in defense of freedom and human dignity for ourselves and for all mankind.
Let me avail of this opportunity to disabuse the minds of those who suggest that the transfer of our commemoration of independence was prompted by the action of the American Congress in backing out of a material commitment and obligation to our people. There is no casual relation between the two events. We commemorate our freedom on this day because the permanent truth and historical reality so justify and not for any transient reason. To suggest that we have moved the commemoration of our independence because of the influence of material factors is to offend the Filipino people and their leaders; because the heroic exploits of our patriots and people which led to the declaration of independence on June 12, 1898, as well as acts of patriotism of Filipino heroes thereafter, are incontrovertible proof that in weighing the merits of patriotism, the Filipinos neither count the cost nor consider material rewards but are moved solely and nobly by their fervent love for their country and the pursuit of its noble ideals.
It is noteworthy that no one among the half-dozen great heroes of our history, Rizal, Aguinaldo, Bonifacio, Lapu-Lapu, Abad Santos and Quezon, has played a role in the Republic that we administer today. This fact emphasizes the responsibility which devolves upon us to whom they bequeathed the fruits of their heroic labors to fashion this Republic as an instrument for the welfare and happiness of our people.
http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1962/06/12/address-of-president-macapagal-on-independence-day/
Macapagal cannot rid himself of America no matter how hard he tries. He even justifies his moving the date based on a twisted reading of the fact that America did not completely throw off the British yoke until 1783. Bizarrely enough he notes that none of the revolutionaries of 1898 have anything to do with the current Philippine Republic which admission seems out of place in this speech justifying the moving of Independence Day to June 12th. There is no continuity between the First Philippine Republic, which was intended to be an American protectorate, and the nation which exists today. None.
Why does he take the time to assure the people that the changing of Independence Day to June 12th had nothing to do with the actions of the American government? There must have been quite a noisy contingent of Filipinos opposed to the measure for him to have made this statement. That is because it is obvious that the change was enacted because the Americans denied a payment of $73 million and this was a way to "get back" at them.
The changing of Independence Day to June 12th all comes down to pride. Prideful indignation about not receiving more money. He could have chosen any time to make the switch but he chose to do it after the United States said, "No more money." Macapagal can deny this was an act of resentment all he wants but, based on how quickly after the U.S. refused to give the money he made Proclamation 28, that is most certainly the motive. The CIA had this to report:
"Hurt pride."
Instead of trying to get the money through diplomacy Macapagal and the nation threw a tantrum and now, 56 years later, the entire country is still celebrating a lie. In August 1962 the US Congress did vote to give the 73 million dollars they had denied in May. Amazingly after this bill was passed Macapagal noted that Philippine-American relations are now improving! It all comes down to money.
During the debate on this bill Congressman Olin Teague from Texas had this to say:
I am much disturbed and disappointed in things that have happened in the Philippines since this bill was last debated. The action of the present President and the changing of their recognized date of independence, in my opinion was both childish and ridiculous. I want it clearly understood that I am voting for this bill in spite of these actions, and not because of these actions. I believe my voting record in the Congress and my actions in the Congress in behalf of the people of the Philippines will prove that I have had a very warm feeling for them. I do believe that the Philippine Government should have shown more patience and understanding on this issue.
Childish and ridiculous indeed.
The fact is the Philippines did not become independent on June 12th, 1898. Neither did the United States become independent on July 4th, 1776. The difference is that the Americans fought AND WON a bloody revolution. The Filipinos LOST. They were DEFEATED and their republic DIED. Aguinaldo even submitted to the yoke of American rule. What kind of revolutionary does that?
What the Philippines is celebrating on June 12th is a fantasy. A game. A LARP. Like many other things in this country June 12th as Independence Day is a big, fat lie. And worst of all it obscures the true history of how the country really obtained independence. It denies the fact that Philippine independence is the will of the PEOPLE and not just the will of A FEW REVOLUTIONARIES. It denies the history of Quezon and the men who governed the Commonwealth and snuffs out the voices of the entire nation which voted for independence in 1934. There is nothing shameful about the Philippines becoming independent on July 4th, 1946 since that is what Filipinos themselves voted for! It is a testament to the goodwill of both the Filipinos and the Americans that true independence came in an orderly manner without bloodshed at the total behest of the will of the Filipinos.
Here are some revealing remarks about that goodwill from President Macapagal's speech commemorating the U.S. Memorial Day ceremonies on May 31, 1962.
These crosses are the symbol and proof and the result of the historic and unique relationship between the Philippines and the United States.
This relationship had the most inauspicious of beginnings. It began with war—a war in which we were allies against the common enemy of European colonialism, but which developed into a war in which we became enemies, when Filipinos and Americans struck and killed each other in fierce combat.
But when American rule was established in these islands, peace began to reign. Unlike the experience of other colonized Asian countries, there were no bloody revolts or violent demonstrations against the United States. Agitation for independence was done in the dignified and peaceful confines of the Philippine and American legislatures.
When the forces of the United States returned to the Philippines, we welcomed them with open hearts and open homes. Again, no other Asian country has welcomed the forces of its colonizers with the same enthusiasm with which the Filipinos hailed the return of MacArthur and the American G.I.
When after liberation, the American flag was finally lowered, and the Philippine flag was raised in sovereign solitude, it was an occasion for joy. It had not been preceded, as in other former colonies, by violence or rancor or bitterness.
Even when the United States had relinquished its sovereignty over this country and the Philippines had taken its place among the independent nations of the earth, Filipinos continued to extend a welcome hand to the Americans.
Numerous American bases on Philippine soil have continued to tie the Philippines to the American security system in the Pacific. In the economic field, the Bell Trade Act of 1946 continued to tie the Philippine economy to that of the United States. Moreover, the Filipino people approved a “parity” amendment to the Philippine Constitution which gave Americans the same rights as Filipinos in the development of our natural resources and public utilities. This is more than any other sovereign Nation has ever conceded to another.
Although there were many among our countrymen who regarded these concessions as a diminution of Philippine sovereignty, the Filipino people acceded to them as a sign of a special regard for America and of trust in the American people.
This special regard was earned by the good will and the generosity of the American people. But it is also a sign of the Philippines’ enduring friendship for America, and —more—it is an expression of the Philippines’ loyalty not so much to America as a nation, as to the cause of freedom for which the United States specially stands.
But if our love of freedom is native born, it was America, during her occupation, that gave it the constitutional substance that it enjoys today.
This is not a people who will ask for doles. This is a Nation that will deal with another only in honor, that will gratefully acknowledge assistance extended in respect out of common effort for a noble cause but will disdain handouts.
May I end with a prayer before these hallowed tombs that, as they did in the past, Filipinos and Americans will walk shoulder to shoulder towards the fulfillment of their national destinies.
http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1962/05/30/address-of-president-macapagal-at-the-u-s-memorial-day-ceremonies/
What a stark contrast this warmth towards the United States is compared to the cold shoulder and distrust offered by many in the Philippine government, and among the populace, today. And he said all this only two weeks after being so resentful and angry at the U.S. about not receiving money that the day of independence was changed!
I will let Emilio Aguinaldo have the last word about the July 4th independence. From his book "A Second Look at America."
Philippine independence is a compromise. In its final form it is a synthesis of Filipino nationalism. Democratic pragmatism and Republican idealism, together with all the various human frailties and wisdom, machinations and pressures, defeats and triumphs which make up public opinion. It embodies, even if belatedly, the ideal of the Filipinos of an independent nationality. It fulfills, if also tardily, the American independence promises from Dewey's to the Democrats'. And it includes some of the important ideas of the Republicans such as a long period of preparation and an opportunity for the Filipinos to decide for themselves whether to remain in association with America or go it alone.
pg. 174
The final Independence Law was approved March 24, 1934. It authorized the Filipinos to write a Constitution for a transitional Commonwealth Government of ten years, upon the termination of which the Philippines would be proclaimed free and independent. The Law was subject to acceptance by the Philippines; the Constitution, to the approval of the President of the United States and the Filipino people in a plebiscite.
"If a majority of the votes cast shall be for the constitution,"the act provided, "such vote shall be deemed an expression of the will of the people of the Philippine Islands in favor of Philippine independence." This met the Republican insistence that the Filipinos should have the opportunity to decide their fate, although the Party had favored the taking of such a vote after the Commonwealth period and not before.
pg. 175
The Philippines having been liberated, the Commonwealth Government was reconstituted in February 1945 under President Osmeña who had succeeded Quezon in the presidency upon the latter's death in 1944. As provided by law, the third and last election under the Commonwealth was held early in 1946. And, as scheduled, independence was proclaimed on July 4 that year.
pg. 189
Independence came to the Filipinos when they were profoundly divided by the touchy issue of collaboration, when they were in rags, when their country was prostrate and bleeding. But it was to the eternal credit of America that, instead of inquiring, like Shylock, if it was so nominated in the Independence Law, she forthwith proceeded in full good will to assist the young Republic to rise from the ruins of war. This labor still remains unfinished.
pg. 191
https://archive.org/details/secondlookatamer00agui
